Reward circuit governs sex and bonding

• Desire and dread from the nucleus accumbens: cortical glutamate and subcortical GABA differentially generate motivation and hedonic impact in the rat. (top-down cortical glutamate signals powerfully regulate motivation components, but are relatively unable to penetrate core hedonic components of emotion. That may carry implications of limits to therapeutic regulation of pathological emotions.) Also see journalist article about research: Desire and dread Brains computer has separate keyboard to control powerful emotions http://www.physorg.com/news197134589.html Bottom line: New brain can motivate, but can't ease intense emotions.
• Risk factors for pathologic gambling and other compulsions among Parkinson’s disease patients taking dopamine agonists (Survey of patients who developed compulsivities - including sexual compulsivity - due to taking dopamine agonists.)
• Pathways of sexual desire (dopamine systems that link the hypothalamus and limbic system appear to form the core of the excitatory system.)
• [Conditioned preferences induced by sex and drugs: a comparison of the neural bases] (sex and drug reward can induce the development of new preferences, leading to the idea that the partner preferences that develop after sexual encounters and drug consumption are, in part, consequences of classical conditioning.)
• Internet Sex Addiction Treated With Naltrexone (Excellent discussion of sex addiction and the brain.) Here are excerpts:

  This article reviews naltrexone's mechanism of action in the reward center and describes a novel use for naltrexone in suppressing a euphorically compulsive and interpersonally devastating addiction to Internet pornography. ...

  As neuroscience further elucidates addiction's neural underpinnings, it becomes increasingly clear that a malfunctioning reward center is common to all compulsive behaviors, whether drug abuse, overeating, gambling, or excessive sexual activity.2,3 Although impulsive-compulsive sexual behavior has been little studied,4 it makes intuitive sense that pharmacotherapies effective against one type of addictive behavior would also combat other types. Each behavior has specific triggers and manifestations, yet the final common pathway for all involves neurochemical modulation of dopaminergic activity via receptors in the ventral tegmental area (VTA)

• Stimulation of dopamine receptors in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus of male rats induces penile erection and increases extra-cellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens: Involvement of central oxytocin (stimulation of dopamine receptors in the paraventricular nucleus induces the release of oxytocin in brain areas that influence the activity of mesolimbic dopaminergic neurons mediating the appetitive and reinforcing effects of sexual activity)
• Regulation by the medial amygdala of copulation and medial preoptic dopamine release (dopaminergic system (within reward center) is a key element of the control of sexual function)
• Dopamine and male sexual function (dopaminergic system is a key element of the control of sexual function)
• Cellular mechanisms of social attachment (reward center key for pair bonding- contains oxytocin and vasopressin receptors)
• Reward Mechanism Involved in Addiction Likely Regulates Pair Bonds Between Monogamous Animals (press release about elements of addiction in bonding)

Dopamine is a "wanting" not a "liking"

• Hyperdopaminergic mutant mice have higher "wanting" but not "liking" for sweet rewards [higher dopamine levels lead to more wanting (desire) but not to more liking (pleasure)]
• Opioid Limbic Circuit for Reward: Interaction between Hedonic Hotspots of Nucleus Accumbens and Ventral Pallidum ["liking" and "wanting" functions are different in brain]
• Dynamic increases in dopamine during paced copulation in the female rat (dopamine more related to anticipation than to consummation)
• What is the role of dopamine in reward: hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience? (dopamine required for motivation but not for "liking" something)
• Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain (citation to original experiment that revealed the reward center of the brain)
• Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons (dopamine neurons are activated by rewarding events that are better than predicted, remain uninfluenced by events that are as good as predicted, and are depressed by events that are worse than predicted)
• Reward without dopamine (dopamine not required for reward; something else can give us reward)

Natural Reinforcer (sweetiness) Surpasses Cocaine Reward

• Intense Sweetness Surpasses Cocaine Reward (intense sweetness can surpass cocaine reward, even in drug-sensitized and -addicted individuals)

Oxytocin

• Oxytocin dopamine interactions mediate variations in maternal behavior in the rat (There's a direct effect of oxytocin on dopamine release within the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system and it's key in the establishment and maintenance of social bonds.)
• The acute effects of intranasal oxytocin administration on endocrine and sexual function in males (Intranasal oxytocin used by masturbating men didn't have much effect on blood work or experience of masturbation to orgasm. Scientists suggest testing with partners.)
• Oxytocin injected into the ventral tegmental area induces penile erection and increases extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus of male rats (Oxytocin injected into reward circuitry of brain increases dopamine)

PT-141

• PT-141: A Melanocortin Agonist for the Treatment of Sexual Dysfunction

More Research

• Evolution, mating and bonding
• Post-coital hangover
• Potential health benefits
• Potential health risks
• Return to detailed outline of all research

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