Good, recent, general article: The endocrinology of sexual arousal

Prolactin

Prolactin secretory rhythm of mated rats induced by a single injection of oxytocin (Oxytocin surge at orgasm may cause post-orgasmic prolactin.) Complete study

The post-orgasmic prolactin increase following intercourse is greater than following masturbation and suggests greater satiety (400% more prolactin after orgasm with intercourse than after masturbation...biology's way of signaling that the vital mission is accomplished)
Coitus-induced orgasm stimulates prolactin secretion in healthy subjects (orgasm leads to elevation of blood prolactin)

The role of prolactin levels in the sexual activity of married men with erectile dysfunction (prolactin levels might play a role in sexual activity in men with erectile dysfunction)

Neuroendocrine response to film-induced sexual arousal in men and women (prolactin doesn't rise before orgasm - full article)

Effects of acute prolactin manipulation on sexual drive and function in males (elevation of prolactin after orgasm affects central nervous system centers controlling sexual drive and behavior)

Hyperprolactinemia and sexual function in men: a short review (erectile dysfunction associated with elevated prolactin)

Prolactin: An integral player in hormonal politics(full article by Dr. Heaton on prolactin's effects on sex)

Influence of primary hyperprolactinemia on human sexual behavior(elevated prolactin associated with mild depression and a decrease in orgasmic frequency)

Psychological distress in patients with hyperprolactinaemia (hyperprolactinaemia in women is associated with severe anxiety, which was worse in the patients with no tumors showing on CT scans)

Prolactin, aggression and hostility: a discussion of recent studies (hyperprolactinaemia in women is associated with aggression and hostility, 1984)

Treatment-Seeking Inpatient Cocaine Abusers Show Hypothalamic Dysregulation of Both Basal Prolactin and Cortisol Secretion
(prolactin takes 2 weeks to normalize in recovering addicts)

NMDA-Mediated Activation of the Medial Amygdala Initiates a Downstream Neuroendocrine Memory Responsible for Pseudopregnancy in the Female Rat (prolactin surges continue for 2 weeks after female rats mate, even if no pregnancy occurs)

Prolactin release after mating and genitosensory stimulation in females(Intromissions induce the 10-13 days of twice-daily prolactin surges. There is a threshold that has to be met for the full response to occur.)

Involvement of endogenous opioidergic neurons in modulation of prolactin secretion in response to mating in the female rat (varying the number of intromissions did not affect levels of prolactin — still 4 x normal)

Excitotoxic lesions of the medial amygdala differentially disrupt prolactin secretory responses in cycling and mated female rats (Mating causes surges of prolactin. Prolactin surges may be regulated through opioids.)

Infusions of lidocaine into the amygdala, but not the preoptic area, block pseudopregnancy in the rat (amygdala involved with prolactin surges)

Cardiovascular and Endocrine Alterations After Masturbation-Induced Orgasm in Women (prolactin surges substantially after orgasm in women) Entire article - PDF download

Specificity of the neuroendocrine response to orgasm during sexual arousal in men (Prolactin regulates sexual appetite through dopamine. Oxytocin rises at orgasm but is inconsistent compared to prolactin.) Link to entire article (PDF download, 8 pages)

Orgasm-induced prolactin secretion: feedback control of sexual drive? (Prolactin increases significantly at orgasm and functions to regulate sexual desire. Sexual activity without orgasm doesn't raise prolactin levels.) Full text of research

Absence of orgasm-induced prolactin secretion in a healthy multi-orgasmic male subject (prolactin typically increases significantly at orgasm and functions to regulate sexual desire)

Ecstasy (MDMA) mimics the post-orgasmic state: Impairment of sexual drive and function during acute MDMA-effects may be due to increased prolactin secretion (impairment of sexual parameters after ecstasy may be caused by increased prolactin)

Acute neuroendocrine response to sexual stimulation in sexual offenders (sexual offenders with a high sexual drive do not differ from control subjects in postorgasmic neuroendocrine response, particularly in prolactin release)

Does reduction of blood prolactin levels reveal the activation of central dopaminergic pathways conveying reward in top athletes? (the brain controls blood prolactin levels, which are affected by reward circuit behaviors)

Pregnancy-Stimulated Neurogenesis in the Adult Female Forebrain Mediated by Prolactin (prolactin causes female rats to sprout nerve cells in olfactory part of brain during pregnancy)

Physiologic Manifestations of Stress from Capture and Restraint of Free-Ranging Male African Green Monkeys (Cercopithecus Aethiops) (prolactin is apparently a stress hormone associated with long-term despair, and rose over time in captured monkeys)

Testosterone / Androgens / DHEA (see also "Dopamine and Serotonin" and "Coolidge Effect")

Pharmacological and physiological aspects of sexual exhaustion in male rats (Drastic reduction in androgen receptor density in specific regions of the brain (mpoa) following sexual activity. May take up to 7 days to recover from sexual activity, perhaps due to androgen receptor decrease after orgasm for 4-7 days, which decreases effects of testosterone.)

Dopaminergic challenges in social anxiety disorder evidence for dopamine D3 desensitisation following successful treatment with serotonergic antidepressants (Low dopamine associated with social anxiety. Many porn users and POIS sufferers report desire for isolation and/or social anxiety after orgasm.)

Hormonal changes when falling in love (Testosterone levels of new lovers come into sync...and diverge again within two years)

Anabolic androgens restore mating after sexual satiety in male rats (long term inhibition of masculine mating behavior after repeated ejaculations and is associated to changes in both androgen receptor and estrogen receptor-alpha expression)

Relationship Between Sexual Satiety and Brain Androgen Receptors (reduction in sexual activity in sexually-satiated rats was accompanied by reduction in androgen receptors. 72 hours later, androgen receptors had returned to normal. Testosterone levels did not change during recovery)

A research on the relationship between ejaculation and serum testosterone level in men (testosterone fluctuates for 7 days after ejaculation)

Endocrine response to masturbation-induced orgasm in healthy men following a 3-week sexual abstinence (plasma testosterone was unaltered by orgasm, BUT higher testosterone concentrations were observed following period of abstinence)

Sexual behavior reduces hypothalamic androgen receptor immunoreactivity (sexual activity reduces androgen receptors in specific brain areas, even when they remain normal in blood, and may underlie sexual satiety)

Hormone-neurotransmitter interactions in the control of sexual behavior (overall view of neurotransmitter involved in sexual behavior)

Hormonal responses to different sexually related conditions in male rats (testosterone rises after copulation in rats, but within 24 hours it's back to normal)

Testosterone restoration of copulatory behavior correlates with medial preoptic dopamine release in castrated male rats (Sexual activity reduces androgen receptors in specific brain areas, and androgens regulate sexual desire through activating reward circuitry dopamine levels. Possibly, the reduction in androgen receptors in reward circuit (mpoa), seen in other experiments, which can last a week, are one major cause of low dopamine in reward circuit following orgasm (in addition to prolactin surges.)

Effects of testosterone metabolites on copulation and medial preoptic dopamine release in castrated male rats (testosterone acts through reward circuit dopamine to affect sexual desire)

Hormone-neurotransmitter interactions in the control of sexual behavior (evidence that testosterone works by activating dopamine in reward circuit)

The post-orgasmic prolactin increase following intercourse is greater than following masturbation and suggests greater satiety (400 percent more prolactin after intercourse than after masturbation...biology's way of signaling that the critical job is done)

Circulating neuroactive c21- and c19-steroids in young men before and after ejaculation (level of 17alpha-hydroxypregnenolone increased significantly, whereas the other circulating steroids - including DHEA - were not changed at all.)

Dopamine, Serotonin, Brain activation (see also "Testosterone")

PORN ADDICTION Internet sex addiction treated with naltrexone. (article reviews naltrexone's mechanism of action in the reward circuit [regulating dopamine] and describes a novel use for naltrexone in suppressing a euphorically compulsive and interpersonally devastating addiction to Internet pornography)

Emotion-based decision-making in healthy subjects: short-term effects of reducing dopamine levels. (results suggest a direct link between a reduced dopaminergic activity and poor emotion-based decision-making)

Dynamic increases in dopamine during paced copulation in the female rat (increased anticipation and vigorous copulation increase dopamine in the female rat)

Pharmacology of flibanserin.. (FEMALE LIBIDO DRUG works on serotonin and dopamine receptors. Also enhances extracellular levels of NE and DA in cortex)

Dopamine and serotonin: influences on male sexual behavior. (testosterone increases dopamine, i.e., motivation. Serotonin inhibits sexual activity by decreasing dopamine release)

The neurobiology of pair bonding (Entire article on neurobiology of pair bonding - excellent overview of sexual neurochemistry)

Subjective Experiences During Dopamine Depletion (acute dopamine depletion causes psychiatric symptoms)

Proerectile effects of apomorphine in mice (dopamine is at center of sexual desire)

Brain Activation during Human Male Ejaculation (brain scan parallels drawn between ejaculation and heroin rush)

Yohimbine interacts with the dopaminergic system to reverse sexual satiation: further evidence for a role of sexual motivation in sexual exhaustion (dopamine agonists stimulated sexual behavior in satiated rats)

Induction of mating behavior by apomorphine in sexually sated rats (inhibition of sexual behavior follows blockage of dopamine - but other neurotransmitters involved)

Brain Activation During Female Sexual Orgasm (neurochemistry of reward circuit controls female and male orgasm)

Prolactinergic and dopaminergic mechanisms underlying sexual arousal and orgasm in humans (Dopamine underlies sexual arousal. Prolactin inhibits sexual appetite and may be implicated in orgasmic disorders)

Hormone-neurotransmitter interactions in the control of sexual behavior (Serotonin is involved with sexual satiation mechanism. Serotonin inhibits reward circuit dopamine)

Oxytocin

Centrally released oxytocin mediates mating-induced anxiolysis in male rats (Oxytocin critical to change of behavior male rats for several hours after coitus. They take more risks and seem less fearful.)

Prolactin secretory rhythm of mated rats induced by a single injection of oxytocin (Oxytocin surge at orgasm may cause post-orgasmic prolactin.) Complete study

A mathematical model for the mating-induced prolactin rhythm of female rats (Injection of oxytocin sets off prolactin rhythm in rats)

Relationships among cardiovascular, muscular, and oxytocin responses during human sexual activity. (Plasma oxytocin shoots up and drops within minutes at masturbation-induced orgasm. Levels not linked to intensity...except in multi-orgasmic women.)

Plasma oxytocin increases in the human sexual response. (Plasma oxytocin shoots up and drops within minutes at orgasm. May be linked to smooth muscle contractions of the reproductive system during orgasm.)

The neurobiology of pair bonding (Entire article on neurobiology of pair bonding - excellent overview of sexual neurochemistry)

Oxytocin receptor is expressed in the penis and mediates an estrogen-dependent smooth muscle contractility (oxytocin spurt at orgasm may play a role in penile flaccidity)

Oxytocin Mediates the Estrogen-Dependent Contractile Activity of Endothelin-1 in Human and Rabbit Epididymis (oxytocin plays a role in spontaneous motility necessary for sperm transport)

Preliminary research on plasma oxytocin in normal cycling women: investigating emotion and interpersonal distress (distress seems to be associated with higher basal oxytocin levels, but those with happy relationships respond to stimuli better)

Relation Of Oxytocin To Psychological Stress Responses And Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical Axis Activity In Older Women (higher basal oxytocin levels are associated with relationship stress, and in such situations, it does not counter cortisol response)

A relationship between oxytocin and anxiety of romantic attachment. (Romantic attachment is the psychological strategy which enables us to overcome fear of strangers, and to mate with and create a strong, often life-long bond with a complete stranger, so that we may produce healthier offspring)

Opioids

Activation of mu opioid receptors in the medial preoptic area following copulation in male rats (changes in opioid receptors in reward circuit (mpoa) involved in sexual behavior — inhibitory influence on sexual behavior)

Evidence for changes in brain enkephalin contents associated to male rat sexual activity (Changes in opioid levels occur in brain following orgasm. 48 hours after orgasm opioids levels had not returned to normal in the hypothalamus (reward circuit). No differences in the magnitude of the changes were found between rats that ejaculated once and sexually satiated males.)

Involvement of endogenous opioidergic neurons in modulation of prolactin secretion in response to mating in the female rat. (opioids released during mating have inhibitory influence on sexual behavior — by increasing prolactin)

The Coolidge Effect

Dynamic changes in nucleus accumbens dopamine efflux during the Coolidge effect in male rats (stimulus properties of a novel receptive female may serve to reinitiate sexual behavior) Also see entire study, with graphs.

Centrally released oxytocin mediates mating-induced anxiolysis in male rats (Oxytocin critical to change of behavior male rats for several hours after coitus. They take more risks and seem less fearful.)

Neural activation following sexual behavior in the male and female rat brain (there is a specific ejaculation-related subcircuit, which may, under normal conditions in the rat, serve a 'sexual-satiety function')

Determinants of mating success in the golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus): I. Male capacity (Introduction of fresh female causes some recovery of ejaculation capacity, but four to eight days were required for full recovery from sexual exhaustion. Recovery faster than in other rodents.)

Effect on ejaculatory performance and semen parameters of sexually-satiated male goats (Capra hircus) after changing the stimulus female (changing the stimulus animal stimulates sexual activity and increases sperm output in male goats)

Effect of novel and familiar mating partners on the duration of sexual receptivity in the female hamster (introduction of novel male stimulates sexual receptivity in female)

Absolute Coding of Stimulus Novelty in the Human Substantia Nigra/VTA (novelty can serve as its own 'reward' at a brain chemical level)

Perception shift/depression after orgasm in women

Sexual activity is inversely related to women’s perceptions of the facial attractiveness of unknown men (the more sexual activity women engage in, the less attractive they find men. This effect is strongest with respect to masturbation and least strong with respect to penile-vaginal intercourse)

Lifetime Depression History and Sexual Function in Women at Midlife (Although the groups did not differ in their reported frequency of sexual desire or partnered sexual behaviors, lifetime depression history, less physical pleasure, and less emotional satisfaction within their current sexual relationships were associated with increased rates of self-stimulation (masturbation). )

Sexual functioning and self-reported depressive symptoms among college women (the women with depressive symptoms reported greater desire for sexual activity alone (masturbation) than the nondepressed women)

Post-menopausal

Libido: the biologic scenario (many hormonal changes can depress libido after menopause)

Sexual orientation

Link to Meds 'Made Him Gay' (See childpages below this article for research on dopamine, prolactin and sexual preference.)

More Research

Evolution, mating and bonding

Limbic system and reward circuit

Potential health benefits

Potential health risks

Return to detailed outline of all research

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